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Derek
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Software is the coded instructions or programs, created by programmers and
users to tell the computer what to do. Software can be characterize as either:
 | System Software - used to manage and support computing resources
 | Operating System
- manages other programs' access to the ALU, main memory, and other
hardware. |
| Communications Control Program - such as modem interface
programs |
| System Support Programs - utilities such as virus detection
programs, disk compression, disk fix |
| System Development - languages such as Fortran, Basic, C++,
etc., Database
Management Languages or CASE
Tools |
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| Middleware
- a client/server
class of software whose purpose is to simplify the complex problem of
developing and using applications on different platforms of computers,
connected over different types of networks. |
| Application Software - used to direct the performance of a
particular use or application to meet end-user needs such as word processing
programs, spreadsheets, group
collaboration, accounting programs, enterprise management systems, etc. |
Generations of Programming Languages
Programming languages are used by developers to typically write application
programs used by end-users. Over time, different generations of
programming languages have developed.
First Generation (Binary)
Initially to communicate with computer hardware, applications were written
in machine language, the 0s and 1s of binary code.
Second Generation (Assembly)
Early in the 1950s developers created programs that would take simple
commands such as load, add, or subtract, and convert translate these commands
into the binary code understood by computer equipment. These assembly
languages were specific to the manufactured central processing unit (ex.
Motorola and IBM CPU chips used slightly different assembly language
commands). Programs used a compiler to convert these assembly
level programs into the binary code.
Third Generation (High-Level Languages)
Between the 1950s and the 1970s, programs directed toward use by
mathematicians and accountants emerged, (ex. FORTRAN - Formula TRANslator and
COBOL - Common Business Oriented Language, BASIC - Beginning All-purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code, and PL/1 - Programming Language 1). Fortran
and Cobol are called higher level languages because they generate multiple
statements at the machine-language level. Basic uses an interpreters
to convert a statement into binary one line at a time, rather than
looking at the entire application as a unit.
Fourth Generation
The 1970s saw the beginning of the development of programs focused for use
by non-technical computer users. These languages reduced programming
costs by including prewritten packages that could be used by the end-user.
The first three generations of languages are very procedural in nature -- a
specific sequence of tasks must be taken that tell the computer both what to
do and how to do it. Fourth Generation languages are nonprocedural in
nature, the user need only specify what is to be accomplished and the
application will handle the details of how to accomplish the task. Among
the categories of Fourth Generation Languages are:
| Query Languages - such as SQL (Structured Query
Language) designed to retrieve data stored in databases |
| Report Generators - used for extracting data from files
or databases and creating customized reports. |
| Graphics Languages - creating graphics from data |
| Application Generators - CASE Tools - pre-programmed
modules that can generate entire applications |
| Application Software Packages - prewritten software
that is marketed through commercial retail distribution channels, such as
games, word-processing and spreadsheets |
| PC Tools such as Decision Support Systems and Executive
Support Systems that are designed to provide information at the strategic
level for use in making unstructured decisions |
Fifth Generation
The integration of Artificial Intelligence into computer systems.
With fifth generation languages, programmers are attempting to develop
computer-based systems that can behave like a human being. Among the
categories of Fifth Generation Languages are:
| Expert System - the application tries to capture
Knowledge of an expert and make it available to non-experts.
Knowledge is typically stored in the form of rules or an
"If-Then" format of heuristics and rules-of-thumb. |
| Fuzzy Logic - A rule-based system that relaxes the
mathematical "law of the excluded middle" which allows an item
to be included in more than one set. For example, the term
"cold" could mean an outside temperature of 20 degrees F to a
person in Alaska, or 60 degrees F to a person in Florida. Used
extensively in process control applications. |
| Neural Network - a self-learning program that attempts
to emulate the processing patterns of biological neurons found in the
brain |
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